Languages of India

The languages of India belong to several linguistic families, the major ones being the Indo-European languages—Indo-Aryan (spoken by 72% of Indians) and the Dravidian languages (spoken by 25% of Indians). Other languages spoken in India belong to the Austro-Asiatic, Tibeto-Burman, and a few minor language families and isolates.
The principal official language of the Republic of India is Standard Hindi, while English is the secondary official language. The constitution of India states that "The official language of the Union shall be Hindi in Devanagari script." Neither the Constitution of India nor Indian law specifies a national language, a position supported by a High Court ruling. However, languages listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Indian constitution are sometimes referred to, without legal standing, as the national languages of India.
Individual mother tongues in India number several hundred; the 1961 census recognized 1,652 (SIL Ethnologue lists 415). According to Census of India of 2001, 29 languages are spoken by more than a million native speakers, 122 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of language contact has led to significant mutual influence among the four language families in India and South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India: Persian and English.

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Arabic language

Arabic (العربية al-ʿarabiyyah, IPA: [æl ʕɑrɑˈbijjɐ], or عربي ʿarabī, [ˈʕɑrɑbiː]) is a name applied to a group of languages and/or dialects of Central Semitic, thus related to and classified alongside other Semitic languages such as Hebrew and the Neo-Aramaic languages. Spoken Arabic varieties have more speakers than any other group in the Semitic language family. They are spoken by more than 230 million people as a first language, most of whom live in the Middle East and North Africa. Literary Arabic is the official language of 26 states, and the liturgical language of Islam since it is the language of the Qur'an, the Islamic Holy Book. Arabic has many different, geographically distributed spoken varieties, some of which are mutually unintelligible. Modern Standard Arabic (also called Literary Arabic) is widely taught in schools, universities, and used in workplaces, government and the media.
Modern Standard Arabic derives from Classical Arabic, the only surviving member of the Old North Arabian dialect group, attested in Pre-Islamic Arabic inscriptions dating back to the 4th century. Classical Arabic has also been a literary language and the liturgical language of Islam since its inception in the 7th century.
Arabic has lent many words to other languages of the Islamic world, like Malay/Indonesian, Turkish, Urdu and Persian. During the Middle Ages, literary Arabic was a major vehicle of culture in Europe, especially in science, mathematics and philosophy. As a result, many European languages have also borrowed many words from it. Arabic influence is seen in Mediterranean languages, particularly Spanish, Portuguese, and Sicilian, owing to both the proximity of European and Arab civilizations and 700 years of Arab rule in some parts of the Iberian peninsula (see Al-Andalus).
Arabic has also borrowed words from many languages, including Hebrew, Greek, Persian and Syriac in early centuries, Turkish in medieval times and contemporary European languages in modern times. Arabic is written with the Arabic alphabet, which is an abjad script, and is written from right-to-left.

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Japanese language

Japanese (日本語 Nihongo?, [nʲihoŋɡo]  ( listen)) is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities. It is a member of the Japonic (or Japanese-Ryukyuan) language family, which has a number of proposed relationships with other languages, none of which has gained wide acceptance among historical linguists (see Classification of Japonic). Japanese is an agglutinative language and a mora-timed language. It has a relatively small sound inventory, and a lexically significant pitch-accent system. It is distinguished by a complex system of honorifics reflecting the nature of Japanese society, with verb forms and particular vocabulary to indicate the relative status of the speaker, the listener, and persons mentioned in conversation. Japanese vowels are pure. The Japanese language is written with a combination of three scripts: Chinese characters called kanji (漢字), and two syllabic scripts made up of modified Chinese characters, hiragana (ひらがな or 平仮名) and katakana (カタカナ or 片仮名). The Latin alphabet, rōmaji (ローマ字), is also often used in modern Japanese, especially for company names and logos, advertising, and when entering Japanese text into a computer. Arabic numerals are generally used for numbers, but traditional Sino-Japanese numerals are also commonplace (see Japanese numerals).

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German language

German (Deutsch [ˈdɔʏtʃ]  ( listen)) is a West Germanic language, related to and classified alongside English and Dutch. Spoken by approximately 100 million native speakers, German is one of the world's major languages and the most widely spoken first language in the European Union.

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Chinese Language

Chinese or the Sinitic language(s) (汉语/漢語 Hànyǔ; 华语/華語 Huáyǔ; 中文 Zhōngwén) is a language family consisting of languages which are mostly mutually unintelligible to varying degrees. Originally the indigenous languages spoken by the Han Chinese in China, it forms one of the branches of Sino-Tibetan family of languages. About one-fifth of the world’s population, or over one billion people, speaks some variety of Chinese as their native language. Internal divisions of Chinese are usually perceived by their native speakers as dialects of a single Chinese language, rather than separate languages, although this identification is considered inappropriate by some linguists and Sinologists.
Chinese is distinguished by its high level of internal diversity, although all varieties of Chinese are tonal and analytic. There are between 7 and 13 main regional groups of Chinese (depending on classification scheme), of which the most spoken, by far, is Mandarin (about 850 million), followed by Wu (90 million), Cantonese (Yue) (70 million) and Min (50 million). Most of these groups are mutually unintelligible, although some, like Xiang and the Southwest Mandarin dialects, may share common terms and some degree of intelligibility.
Standard Chinese (Putonghua / Guoyu / Huayu) is a standardized form of spoken Chinese based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin Chinese, referred to as 官话/官話 Guānhuà or 北方话/北方話 Běifānghuà in Chinese. Standard Chinese is the official language of the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the Republic of China (ROC, also known as Taiwan), as well as one of four official languages of Singapore. It is one of the six official languages of the United Nations. Of the other varieties of Chinese, Cantonese is influential in Guangdong Province and Cantonese-speaking overseas communities, and remains one of the official languages of Hong Kong (together with English) and of Macau (together with Portuguese). Min Nan, part of the Min language group, is widely spoken in southern Fujian, in neighbouring Taiwan (where it is known as Taiwanese or Hoklo) and in Southeast Asia (known as Hokkien in Singapore and Malaysia). There are also sizeable Hakka and Shanghainese diaspora, for example in Taiwan, where most Hakka communities maintain diglossia by being conversant in Taiwanese and Standard Chinese

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French language

French (français, IPA: [fʁɑ̃sɛ]) is a Romance language spoken as a first language by most people from France, French-speaking Switzerland, Wallonia and Brussels in Belgium, Monaco, and the regions of Quebec and Acadia in Canada, as well as minorities elsewhere. Second language speakers of French are distributed throughout many parts of the world, the largest numbers of which reside in Francophone Africa, and the highest proportions being situated in Gabon (80%) Mauritius (72.7%) and Côte d'Ivoire (70%). French is estimated as having 110 million[1] native speakers and 190 million second language speakers.Additionally, French is the second-most studied foreign language in the world, after English.
French is a descendant of the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire, as are languages such as Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian, Sardinian and Catalan. Its closest relatives however are the other langues d'oïl and French-based creole languages. Its development was also influenced by the native Celtic languages of Roman Gaul and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders.
It is an official language in 30 countries, most of which form what is called, in French, La Francophonie, the community of French-speaking countries. It is an official language of all United Nations agencies and a large number of international organizations. According to the European Union, 129 million (or 26% of the Union's total population), in 27 member states speak French, of whom 65 million are native speakers and 69 million claim to speak French either as a second language or as a foreign language, making it the third-most spoken second language in the European Union, after English and German. Twenty-percent of non-Francophone Europeans know how to speak French, totaling roughly 145.6 million people.
From the 17th century to the mid-20th century, French served as the pre-eminent international language of diplomacy and international affairs, as well as a lingua franca among the educated classes of Europe. The dominant position of the French language has only recently been overshadowed by English. As a result of extensive colonial ambitions of France and Belgium (at that time governed by a French-speaking elite), between the 17th and 20th centuries, French was introduced to the Americas, Africa, Polynesia, Southeast Asia, and the Caribbean.

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English Language

English is a West Germanic language that arose in the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of England and spread into what was to become south-east Scotland under the influence of the Anglian medieval kingdom of Northumbria. Following the economic, political, military, scientific, cultural, and colonial influence of Great Britain and the United Kingdom from the 18th century, via the British Empire, and of the United States since the mid-20th century, it has been widely dispersed around the world, become the leading language of international discourse, and has acquired use as lingua franca in many regions. It is widely learned as a second language and used as an official language of the European Union and many Commonwealth countries, as well as in many world organizations. It is the third most natively spoken language in the world, after Mandarin Chinese and Spanish.
Historically, English originated from the fusion of languages and dialects, now collectively termed Old English, which were brought to the eastern coast of Great Britain by Germanic (Anglo-Saxon) settlers by the 5th century – with the word English being derived from the name of the Angles. A significant number of English words are constructed based on roots from Latin, because Latin in some form was the lingua franca of the Christian Church and of European intellectual life. The language was further influenced by the Old Norse language due to Viking invasions in the 8th and 9th centuries.
The Norman conquest of England in the 11th century gave rise to heavy borrowings from Norman-French, and vocabulary and spelling conventions began to give the superficial appearance of a close relationship with Romance languages to what had now become Middle English. The Great Vowel Shift that began in the south of England in the 15th century is one of the historical events that mark the emergence of Modern English from Middle English.
Owing to the significant assimilation of various European languages throughout history, modern English contains a very large vocabulary. The Oxford English Dictionary lists over 250,000 distinct words, not including many technical or slang terms, or words that belong to multiple word classes.

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Constant Capital

Constant capital (c), is a concept created by Karl Marx and used in Marxian political economy. It refers to one of the forms of capital invested in production, which contrasts with variable capital (v). The distinction between constant and variable refers to an aspect of the economic role of factors of production in creating a new value.
Constant capital includes the outlay of money on (1) fixed assets, i.e. plant, machinery, land and buildings, (2) raw materials and ancillary operating expenses (including external services purchased), and (3) certain faux frais of production (incidental expenses). Variable capital by contrast refers to the capital outlay on labour costs insofar as they represent workers' earnings.
The concept of constant vs. variable capital contrasts with that of fixed vs. circulating capital (used not only by Marx but by David Ricardo and other classical economists). The latter distinction corresponds to the very common distinction in economics, between fixed inputs (and costs) and variable inputs (and costs). It distinguishes inputs from the point of view of their user (the capitalist), in terms of the degree of flexibility that the user has in using them.
On the other hand, constant capital refers to the non-human inputs into production, while variable capital refers to the human input (the hiring of labor power to do labor).

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Capitalist Mode of Production

In Marx's critique of political economy, the capitalist mode of production is the production system of capitalist societies, which began in Europe in the 16th century, grew rapidly in Western Europe from the end of the 18th century, and later extended to most of the world. It is characterised by: the predominance of private ownership of the means of production and of labour power; distribution and exchange in a mainly market economy (commodity production); and capital accumulation (production for profit).
A "mode of production" (in German: Produktionsweise) means simply "the distinctive way of producing", which could be defined in terms of how it is socially organized and what kinds of technologies and tools are used. Under the capitalist mode of production

• both the inputs and outputs of production are mainly privately owned, priced goods and services purchased in the market.
• production is carried out for exchange and circulation in the market.
• the owners of the means of production (capitalists) are the dominant class (bourgeoisie) who derive their income from the surplus product.
• A defining feature of capitalism is the dependency on wage-labor for a large segment of the population; specifically, the working class (proletariat) do not own capital and must live by selling their labour power in exchange for a wage.

The capitalist mode of production may exist within societies with differing state systems (e.g. liberal democracy, Social democracy, fascism, Communist state, Czarism), and different social structures such as tribalism, the caste system, peasant society, and urban industrial society. Although capitalism has existed in the form of merchant activity, banking, renting land, and small-scale manufactures in previous stages of history, it was usually a relatively minor activity and secondary to the dominant forms of social organization and production; the prevailing property system kept commerce within clear limits.

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Capitalism

Capitalism is an economic system in which the means of production are privately owned and operated for profit. Income in a Capitalist system takes at least two forms, profit on the one hand and wages on the other. There is also a tradition that treats rent, income from the control of natural resources, as a third phenomenon distinct from either of those. In any case, profit is what is received by virtue of control of the tools of production, by the capitalists – those who provide the capital. Wages are received by those who sell their labor with those tools, i.e. the workers.
There is no consensus on the precise definition of capitalism, nor how the term should be used as an historical category. There is, however, little controversy that private ownership of the means of production, creation of goods or services for profit in a market, and prices and wages are elements of capitalism. There are a variety of historical cases to which the designation is applied, varying in time, geography, politics and culture.Some define capitalism as where all the means of production are privately owned, and some define it more loosely where merely "most" are in private hands — while others refer to the latter as a mixed economy biased toward capitalism. More fundamentally, others define capitalism as a system where production is carried out to generate profit and governed subject to the laws of capital accumulation, regardless of legal ownership titles. Private ownership in capitalism implies the right to control property, including determining how it is used, who uses it, whether to sell or rent it, and the right to the revenue generated by the property.
Economists, political economists and historians have taken different perspectives on the analysis of capitalism. Economists usually emphasize the degree that government does not have control over markets (laissez faire), and on property rights.Most political economists emphasize private property, power relations, wage labor and class.There is general agreement that capitalism encourages economic growth.The extent to which different markets are free, as well as the rules defining private property, is a matter of politics and policy, and many states have what are termed mixed economies.
Capitalism, as a deliberate economic system, developed incrementally from the 16th century in Europe,although proto-capitalist organizations existed in the ancient world, and early aspects of merchant capitalism flourished during the Late Middle Ages.Capitalism became dominant in the Western world following the demise of feudalism.Capitalism gradually spread throughout Europe, and in the 19th and 20th centuries, it provided the main means of industrialization throughout much of the world. Today the capitalist system is the world's most dominant form of economic model.

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Accumulation of Capital

Most generally, the accumulation of capital refers simply to the gathering or amassment of objects of value; the increase in wealth; or the creation of wealth. Capital can be generally defined as assets invested with the expectation that their value will increase, usually because there is the expectation of profit, rent, interest, royalties, capital gain or some other kind of return

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Capital Widening

Capital widening is a term used to describe the situation where capital stock is increasing at the same rate as the labour force and the depreciation rate, thus capital per worker remains constant. The economy will expand in terms of aggregate output, but productivity per worker will remain constant.

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Capital deepening

Capital deepening is a term used in economics to describe an economy where capital per worker is increasing.This is also referred to as increase in the capital intensity. Capital deepening is often measured by the capital stock per labour hour. Overall, the economy will expand, and productivity per worker will increase. However, according to some economic models, such as the Solow model, economic expansion will not continue indefinitely through capital deepening alone. This is partly due to diminishing returns and wear & tear (depreciation). Investment is also required to increase the amount of capital available to each worker in the system and thus increase the ratio of capital to labour. In other economic models, for example, the AK model or some models in endogenous growth theory, capital deepening can lead to sustained economic growth even without technological progress. Traditionally, in development economics, capital deepening is seen as a necessary but not sufficient for economic development of a country.

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Capital

In economics, capital, capital goods, or real capital is a factor of production, used to produce goods orservices, that is not itself significantly consumed (though it may depreciate) in the production process.Capital is distinct from land in that capital must itself be produced by human labor before it can be a factor of production. At any moment in time, total physical capital may be referred to as the capital stock, a usage different from the same term applied to a business entity. In a fundamental sense, capital consists of any produced thing that can enhance a person's power to perform economically useful work - a stone or an arrow is capital for a caveman who can use it as a hunting instrument, and roads are capital for inhabitants of a city. Capital is an input in the production function. Homes and personal autos are not capital but are instead durable goods because they are not used in a production effort.

Marxian economics and Classical economics views capital as financial capital (Capital goods being referred to as means of production)used to buy something only in order to sell it again, and for Marx and Marxists, capital only exists within the process of economic exchange - it is wealth that grows out of the process of circulation itself and forms the basis of the economic system of capitalism.

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Hampton Inn & Suites Agoura Hills - Agoura Hills

Hampton Inn and suites was situated in Agoura hills and regional attraction in pepperdine university

Hampton Inn Agoura hills has an outdoor and indoor pool, it has nice facilities to see, This hotels rated as 2-5 star hotel, visitors are served to be breakfast every morning, visitor are park their additional amenities, its safe deposit box at front of the office. It has 37 inches LCD Televisions and well equipped with cable and satellite channels. All Units are like microwaves, coffee, refrigreators, bathrooms, it offers hair dyers. for information toll free 1800 102 1122

For more information visit http://hotels.com

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cheap hotels list in las vegas

- AAE todds Las vegas
- Ambassador strip Inn Travelodge
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Wyndham Park 55 San Francisco - Union Square

Hotels at low cost in San Francisco, it has 55 Wyndham park, and union square is the bussiness hotel location in downtown San Francisco near Westfield Mall shopping center, Moscone convention center and union square. In other various places like Museum of modern art and asian art musueum of San Francisco.

Different features:

- Lunch at the wyndham park 55 hotel San Franciso
- Union Square is a restaurant and a bar/loung.
- Room service availabe during limited hours. Facilities include a gym and fitness,massage center.
- It provides SPA service include and massage city and audio visual equipment.
- High speed internet also avaialble in public areas.
- It has feature to be in one of the San Francisco banquet hall, which consider to be banquet facilities.
- Wedding service and tour assistance also available.
- Guest parking for free, property services other amenities include tea/coffe shop
- This hotel consider to be non smoking hotel.

Fore more details call to US & Canada: 1-800-311-5192

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Best hotels in canterbury,kent

* Best hotels in Western Abbots Barton
visit url: http://cathgate.co.uk, call: 01227 760 341 01227 760 341

* Cathedral Gate Hotel
visit url: http://thanington-hotel-co.uk, call: 01227 464 381 01227 464 381

* Thanington Hotel
visit url: http://pilgrimshotel.com, call: 01227 464 531 01227 464 531

* Sun Hotel in Canterbury
visit url: http:/sunhotel-canterbury.com, call: 01227 769 700 01227 769 700

* The Millers Amrs
visit url: http://millerscanterbury.co.uk, call: 01227 456 057 01227 456 057

* Canterbury Cathedral Lodge Hotel
visit url: http://canterburycathedrallodge.org, call: 01227 865 350 01227 865 350

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Home Loans

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Home loans types of mortgage loans posted by on august 15, 2010 under home loan rates be the first to comment are you planning to buy your dream house confused in choosing. Mid minnesota federal credit union home loans compare mortgage, refinance, insurance and cd rates expert analysis of home loan finance topics and trends. Home loans  chicago,  get map & directions neighborhoods: bucktown, north side. Home loans, reverse mortgage, home purchase, refinance and equity home loans in chicago, il quickly qualify for a bad credit unsecured personal loan , bad credit small business start up loan, or. Calvet home loans read all the top small business and global business news for chicago and world wide.

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Car Loans

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Payday Loans Online

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Loans For Bad Credit

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Secured Loans

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Un Secured Loans

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Cheap Loans

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No Credit Loan

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Bad Credit Loans

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Line Of Credit Loans

Unsecured business loans for your small business no collateral required business loans for any purpose including working capital, inventory, payroll, bills. Money3 singapore loans, line of credit a line of credit is a pool of available money that you can borrow this page covers the basics of how lines of credit work. Mortgage house  line of credit home loans every business needs some extra cash from time to time and that's exactly what bbva compass can help you get. Premier line personal line of credit from u s bank every business needs some extra cash from time to time and that's exactly what bbva compass can help you get. Mortgage house  line of credit home loans a home equity line of credit  is a loan in which the lender agrees to lend a maximum amount within an agreed period.

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No Credit Check Loan

People often feel need for cash before their next payday and resort to short term cash loans no credit check feature, offered by payday loan providers, can be a. Instant no fax payday loans: payday loans no credit check in one hour "unlock the secrets of how the rich and wealthy easily borrow $1,000,000 cash or more i n less than 7 days with no credit check, no. No credit check personal loans no cosigner car loan  a no credit check auto loan with no cosigner would allow a potential borrower the chance to obtain a vehicle although, because of the. No credit check loan we bring your no credit check cash advance loans up to $1000 against your pay check  no faxing and no collateral required to get cash online application and fast. No credit check loan as you search for a no credit check unsecured loan for home mortgages related info or other info about credit loan poor or unsecured visa card, take some time to view the.

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Personal Credit Loans

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Cheap Unsecured Loans

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Student Loan

A student loan is designed to help students pay for university tuition, books, and living expenses. It differs from other types of loans in that the interest rate is substantially lower and the repayment schedule is deferred while the student is still in education.

Qualification

Most college students in the United States qualify for some type of student loan, although the amount they can borrow may vary based on several factors. Income level, parents' income level, and other financial considerations are all weighed to determine the amount you are eligible to borrow under the federal student loan program.

Repayment

A student loan has two major advantages over conventional loans - lower interest rates and easier repayment terms. The interest rate on a student loan will generally be at least two percentage points lower than the going market rate for conventional loans, but this will vary somewhat.

Repaying a student loan is different, too. In most cases, payment can be deferred on the principal and the interest until the student is out of school. Repayment typically begins anywhere from six to twelve months after they leave school, regardless of whether or not they complete their degree program. In some cases, repayment begins if course load drops to half time or less, so it is important to check the exact terms and conditions of any student loan.

The student may have multiple options for extending the repayment period, although an extension of the loan term will likely reduce the monthly payment, it will also increase the amount of total interest paid on the principle balance during the life of the loan. Extension options include extended payment periods offered by the original lender and federal loan consolidation. There are also other extension options including income sensitive repayment plans and hardship deferments.                                  

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Doctor of Philosophy

Doctor of Philosophy, usually abbreviated as PhD, Ph.D., DPhil or D.Phil. (for the Latin philosophiae doctor or doctor philosophiae), in English-speaking countries, abbreviated as Dr. Phil. or similar in several other countries,[1] is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities. The academic level of degrees known as doctorates of philosophy varies considerably according to the country, institution and time period, from entry-level research degrees to higher doctorates.
The term "philosophy" does not refer solely to the modern field of philosophy, but is used in a broader sense in accordance with its original Greek meaning, which is "love of wisdom." In most of Europe, all fields other than theology, law and medicine were traditionally known as philosophy.
The doctorate of philosophy as it exists today originated as a doctorate in the liberal arts at the Humboldt University, and was eventually adopted by American universities, becoming common in large parts of the world in the 20th century.[2] In many countries, the doctorate of philosophy is still awarded only in the liberal arts (known as "philosophy" in continental Europe, hence the name of the degree).

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Master of Science

A Master of Science (Latin: Magister Scientiæ; abbreviated M.Sc., M.Sci., Sc.M., M.S., Mag., Mg., Mgr or S.M.) is a postgraduate academic master's degree awarded by universities in a large number of countries. The degree is typically studied for in the sciences including the social sciences.

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Master of Commerce

Master of Commerce (MComm or MCom; sometimes Magister Commercii) is a postgraduate Masters Degree focusing on commerce, management and economics related subjects. Like the undergraduate Bachelor of Commerce, the degree is offered in Commonwealth nations.

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Bachelor of Science

A Bachelor of Science (Bc., B.S., BS, B.Sc. or BSc; less commonly, S.B. or Sc.B. from the Latin Scientiæ Baccalaureus) is an undergraduate academic degree awarded for completed courses that generally last three to five years (see below).


Australia
In Australia, the BSc is a 3 year degree, offered from 1st year on. A fourth (Honours) year or an MSc is then required to progress on to PhD.
Continental Europe
Many universities in Europe are changing their systems into the BA/MA system, and in doing so also offering the full equivalent of a B.Sc. or M.Sc.
Commonwealth and Ireland
Commonly in the Commonwealth and Ireland graduands are admitted to the degree of Bachelor of Science after having completed a programme in one or more of the sciences. These programmes may take different lengths of time to complete.
A Bachelor of Science receives the designation B.Sc. or B.S. for a major/pass degree and B.Sc. (Hons) or B.S. (Hons) for an honours degree. In England, Wales and Northern Ireland an honours degree is typically completed over a three year period, though there are a few intensified two year courses (with less vacation time). In Scotland, where access to university is possible after one less year of secondary education, degree course have a foundation year making the total course length four years. Ireland the former B.Sc. was changed to B.Sc. (Hons.) which is awarded after 4 years. The B.Sc. (Ord.) is awarded after 3 years.
Whether a subject is considered a science or an art can vary between universities. For example, an economics degree may be given as a B.A. by one university but as a B.Sc. by another. Biology, Biochemistry, Maths, Physics, Chemistry, General science, Earth science and Computer Science are almost universally considered to be sciences.
Even in cases of near-unilateral consensus across a country as to whether a subject is a science or an art, there are exceptions. The London School of Economics offers B.Sc. degrees in practically all subject areas, even those normally associated with arts degrees, while the Oxbridge universities award arts qualifications almost exclusively. In both instances, this is generally for historical and traditional reasons. The first university to admit a student to the degree of Bachelor of Science was the University of London in 1860. Prior to this science subjects were included in the B.A. bracket, notably in the cases of mathematics, physics, physiology and botany.[1] Formerly at the University of Oxford, the degree of B.Sc. was a postgraduate degree; this former degree, still actively granted, has since been renamed M.Sc.
Czech Republic
Universities in the Czech Republic are changing their systems into the Bachelor of Science / Master of Science system, and in doing so also offering the full equivalent of a B.Sc.(Bc.) or M.Sc.(Mgr.). In the Czech Republic and Slovakia a Bachelor of Science places the pre-nominal letters Bc. before his name.
Germany
The B.Sc. in Germany was equivalent to a B.Sc. (Hons.). Many universities in German speaking countries are changing their systems into the BA/MA system, and in doing so also offering the full equivalent of a B.Sc.
Pakistan
In Pakistan, students are admitted to a B.A./B.Sc. degree programme at a college/university, after F.A./F.Sc. The F.A./F.Sc. is a 2 year program equivalent to 11th and 12th grade of High School.but technical Diploma known as (DAE)a three year program but consider as F.Sc in engineering in pakistan.
Most B.A./B.Sc. degree programs were 2 years in duration. But now Higher Education Commission of Pakistan has changed the duration of BA/BSc degree to 4 years. However, professional degree programs vary in duration. Engineering programmes (B.Sc. Engineering or B.E.) take at least 4 years to finish. The medical degree, known as M.B.B.S. (Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery), requires at least 5 years to complete.
United States

This section needs additional citations for verification.
Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2010)
In the United States, a bachelor's in science is generally a four-year undergraduate degree more typically used in engineering, computer science, mathematics, and the natural sciences. In some cases it is used in professional studies of areas involving law, business, or architecture.
Other countries
In Brazil, a Bachelor of Science degree is a graduate degree and is also more specific, usually containing a one-year mandatory probation time by the end of the course followed by relatively elaborate written and oral evaluations.

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Bachelor of Commerce

A Bachelor of Commerce (abbreviated BCom, B.Com., BComm, or B.Comm.) is an undergraduate degree in commerce. The degree is also known as the Bachelor of Commerce and Administration, or BCA. It is predominantly offered in Commonwealth nations; however, the degree is no longer offered in the United Kingdom

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Bachelor of Arts

Bachelor of Arts (B.A. or A.B.), from the Latin artium baccalaureus, is a bachelor's degree awarded for an undergraduate course or program in either the liberal arts, the sciences, or both. Bachelor of Arts degree programs generally last three to four years depending upon the country, academic institution, and specific majors or minors.
Diplomas generally give the name of the institution, signatures of officials of the institution (generally the president or rector of the university as well as the secretary or dean of the component college), the type of degree conferred, the conferring authority and the location at which the degree is conferred. Degree diplomas generally are printed on high quality paper or parchment, use ornate lettering and often include archaic terminology or languages. Individual institutions set the preferred abbreviation for their degrees.

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Association of Chartered Certified Accountants

The Association of Chartered Certified Accountants (ACCA) is a British accountancy body which offers the Chartered Certified Accountant (Designatory letters ACCA or FCCA) qualification worldwide. It is one of the world's largest and fastest-growing accountancy bodies with 140,000 members and 404,000 affiliates and students in 170 countries (as at April 2010). The Institute's headquarters are in London with the principal administrative office being based in Glasgow. In addition the ACCA has a network of nearly 80 staffed offices and other centres around the world.

The ACCA is a founding member body of the Consultative Committee of Accountancy Bodies (CCAB) and the International Federation of Accountants (IFAC).

The term 'Chartered' in ACCA qualification refers to the Royal Charter granted in 1974 by Her Majesty the Queen in the United Kingdom.

Since Chartered Certified Accountant is a legally protected term, individuals who describe themselves as Chartered Certified Accountants must be members of ACCA and, if they carry out public practice engagements, must comply with additional regulations such as holding a practising certificate, being insured against any possible liability claims and submitting to inspections.

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Personal Finance

Personal finance is the application of the principles of finance to the monetary decisions of an individual or family unit. It addresses the ways in which individuals or families obtain, budget, save, and spend monetary resources over time, taking into account various financial risks and future life events. Components of personal finance might include checking and savings accounts, credit cards and consumer loans, investments in the stock market, retirement plans, social security benefits, insurance policies, and income tax management

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Over View Of Technique And Sectors Of The Financial Industry

An entity whose income exceeds its expenditure can lend or invest the excess income. On the other hand, an entity whose income is less than its expenditure can raise capital by borrowing or selling equity claims, decreasing its expenses, or increasing its income. The lender can find a borrower, a financial intermediary such as a bank, or buy notes or bonds in the bond market. The lender receives interest, the borrower pays a higher interest than the lender receives, and the financial intermediary earns the difference for arranging the loan.
A bank aggregates the activities of many borrowers and lenders. A bank accepts deposits from lenders, on which it pays interest. The bank then lends these deposits to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders, of different sizes, to coordinate their activity.
Finance is used by individuals (personal finance), by governments (public finance), by businesses (corporate finance) and by a wide variety of other organizations, including schools and non-profit organizations. In general, the goals of each of the above activities are achieved through the use of appropriate financial instruments and methodologies, with consideration to their institutional setting.
Finance is one of the most important aspects of business management and includes decisions related to the use and acquisition of funds for the enterprise.
In corporate finance, a company's capital structure is the total mix of financing methods it uses to raise funds. One method is debt financing, which includes bank loans and bond sales. Another method is equity financing - the sale of stock by a company to investors. Possession of stock gives the investor ownership in the company in proportion to the number of shares the investor owns. In return for the stock, the company receives cash, which it may use to expand its business or to reduce its debt. Investors, in both bonds and stock, may be institutional investors - financial institutions such as investment banks and pension funds - or private individuals, called private investors or retail investors.

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Coporate Finance

Corporate finance is the field of finance dealing with financial decisions that business enterprises make and the tools and analysis used to make these decisions. The primary goal of corporate finance is to maximize corporate value while managing the firm's financial risks. Although it is in principle different from managerial finance which studies the financial decisions of all firms, rather than corporations alone, the main concepts in the study of corporate finance are applicable to the financial problems of all kinds of firms.
The discipline can be divided into long-term and short-term decisions and techniques. Capital investment decisions are long-term choices about which projects receive investment, whether to finance that investment with equity or debt, and when or whether to pay dividends to shareholders. On the other hand, short term decisions deal with the short-term balance of current assets and current liabilities; the focus here is on managing cash, inventories, and short-term borrowing and lending (such as the terms on credit extended to customers)
The terms corporate finance and corporate financier are also associated with investment banking. The typical role of an investment bank is to evaluate the company's financial needs and raise the appropriate type of capital that best fits those needs. Thus, the terms “corporate finance” and “corporate financier” may be associated with transactions in which capital is raised in order to create, develop, grow or acquire businesses.

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Behavioral Finance

Behavioral Finance studies how the psychology of investors or managers affects financial decisions and markets. Behavioral finance has grown over the last few decades to become central to finance.
Behavioral finance includes such topics as:

• Empirical studies that demonstrate significant deviations from classical theories.
• Models of how psychology affects trading and prices
• Forecasting based on these methods.
• Studies of experimental asset markets and use of models to forecast experiments.

A strand of behavioral finance has been dubbed Quantitative Behavioral Finance, which uses mathematical and statistical methodology to understand behavioral biases in conjunction with valuation. Some of this endeavor has been led by Gunduz Caginalp (Professor of Mathematics and Editor of Journal of Behavioral Finance during 2001-2004) and collaborators including Vernon Smith (2002 Nobel Laureate in Economics), David Porter, Don Balenovich, Vladimira Ilieva, Ahmet Duran). Studies by Jeff Madura, Ray Sturm and others have demonstrated significant behavioral effects in stocks and exchange traded funds. Among other topics, quantitative behavioral finance studies behavioral effects together with the non-classical assumption of the finiteness of assets.

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Debt Consolidation

Debt consolidation entails taking out one loan to pay off many others. This is often done to secure a lower interest rate, secure a fixed interest rate or for the convenience of servicing only one loan.
Debt consolidation can simply be from a number of unsecured loans into another unsecured loan, but more often it involves a secured loan against an asset that serves as collateral, most commonly a house. In this case, a mortgage is secured against the house. The collateralization of the loan allows a lower interest rate than without it, because by collateralizing, the asset owner agrees to allow the forced sale (foreclosure) of the asset to pay back the loan. The risk to the lender is reduced so the interest rate offered is lower.
Sometimes, debt consolidation companies can discount the amount of the loan. When the debtor is in danger of bankruptcy, the debt consolidator will buy the loan at a discount. A prudent debtor can shop around for consolidators who will pass along some of the savings. Consolidation can affect the ability of the debtor to discharge debts in bankruptcy, so the decision to consolidate must be weighed carefully.
Debt consolidation is often advisable in theory when someone is paying credit card debt. Credit cards can carry a much larger interest rate than even an unsecured loan from a bank. Debtors with property such as a home or car may get a lower rate through a secured loan using their property as collateral. Then the total interest and the total cash flow paid towards the debt is lower allowing the debt to be paid off sooner, incurring less interest

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Credit Card

A credit card is a small plastic card issued to users as a system of payment. It allows its holder to buy goods and services based on the holder's promise to pay for these goods and services.[1] The issuer of the card creates a revolving account and grants a line of credit to the consumer (or the user) from which the user can borrow money for payment to a merchant or as a cash advance to the user.

A credit card is different from a charge card: a charge card requires the balance to be paid in full each month. In contrast, credit cards allow the consumers a continuing balance of debt, subject to interest being charged. A credit card also differs from a cash card, which can be used like currency by the owner of the card. Most credit cards are issued by banks or credit unions, and are the shape and size specified by the ISO/IEC 7810 standard as ID-1. This is defined as 85.60 × 53.98 mm (3.370 × 2.125 in) (33/8 × 21/8 in) in size.

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Loan

A loan is a type of debt. Like all debt instruments, a loan entails the redistribution of financial assets over time, between the lender and the borrower.
In a loan, the borrower initially receives or borrows an amount of money, called the principal, from the lender, and is obligated to pay back or repay an equal amount of money to the lender at a later time. Typically, the money is paid back in regular installments, or partial repayments; in an annuity, each installment is the same amount.
The loan is generally provided at a cost, referred to as interest on the debt, which provides an incentive for the lender to engage in the loan. In a legal loan, each of these obligations and restrictions is enforced by contract, which can also place the borrower under additional restrictions known as loan covenants. Although this article focuses on monetary loans, in practice any material object might be lent.
Acting as a provider of loans is one of the principal tasks for financial institutions. For other institutions, issuing of debt contracts such as bonds is a typical source of funding.

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Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA)

The Bachelor of Business Administration (BBA) is a bachelor's degree in Commerce and business administration. In most universities, the degree is conferred upon a student after four years of full-time study (120 credit hours) in one or more areas of business concentrations; see below. The BBA program usually includes general business courses and advanced courses for specific concentrations. It has similar and mostly same subjects as that of Bachelor of Commerce. Alternative degree titles include Bachelor of Science in Business Administration (BSBA), Bachelor in Management and Organizational Studies (BMOS) and Bachelor in Management Studies (BMS).

Program content
The degree is designed to give a broad knowledge of the functional areas of a company, and their interconnection, while also allowing for specialization in a particular area. BBA programs thus expose students to a variety of "core subjects", and, as above, allow students to specialize in a specific academic area; see MBA program content. The degree also develops the student's practical managerial skills, communication skills and business decision-making capability. Many programs thus incorporate training and practical experience, in the form of case studies, projects, presentations, internships, industrial visits, and interaction with experts from the industry. For a comparison with other undergraduate degrees in business and management, see further under Bachelor's degree.
The core topics usually comprise: accounting, business law and ethics, economics, finance, management information systems, marketing, operations management, organizational behavior, quantitative techniques (business statistics, financial mathematics, operations research) and strategic management.
The specializations include:

• Accounting
• Entrepreneurship
• Finance
• Real Estate
• Human Resource Management
• International Business
• Legal Management
• Management
• Management information systems
• Marketing
• Operations management
• Supply chain management
• Tourism management

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Chartered Accountants

Chartered Accountants were the first accountants to form a professional body, initially established in Britain in 1854. The Edinburgh Society of Accountants (formed 1854), the Glasgow Institute of Accountants and Actuaries (1854) and the Aberdeen Society of Accountants (1867) were each granted a royal charter almost from their inception. The title is an internationally recognised professional designation.
Chartered Accountants work in all fields of business and finance. Some are engaged in public practice work, others work in the private sector and some are employed by government bodies.
Chartered Accountants Institutes require members to undertake a minimum level of continuing professional development to stay ahead of their peers. They facilitate special interest groups - lead academic and professional thinking in accountancy. They provide support to members by offering advisory services, technical helplines and technical libraries. They offer opportunities for professional networking and career and business development.

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MBA or M.B.A

The Master of Business Administration (MBA or M.B.A.) is a master's degree in business administration, which attracts people from a wide range of academic disciplines. The MBA designation originated in the United States, emerging from the late 19th century as the country industrialized and companies sought out scientific approaches to management. The core courses in the MBA program are designed to introduce students to the various areas of business such as accounting, finance, marketing, human resources, operations management, etc. Students in MBA programs have the option of taking general business courses throughout the program or can select an area of concentration and focus approximately one-fourth of their studies in this subject.
Accreditation bodies exist specifically for MBA programs to ensure consistency and quality of graduate business education. Business schools in many countries offer MBA programs tailored to full-time, part-time, executive, and distance learning students, with specialized concentrations.

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